Annotated+Bibliography--Hilary+Straus


 * Hilary Straus, PPD-656, Political Management: Theory and Applied Techniques**
 * June 21, 2007

Annotated Bibliography—An Analysis of Public Sector Involvement in the Development and Implementation of Alternative Energy Sources**

Abelson, Philip H. “Energy Conservation Is Not Enough.” __Science__ 196, no. 4295 (June 10, 1977): 1159.

Abelson provides a critique of Carter’s National Energy Plan. The researcher points out that there was enormous public opposition to the plan, and he speculates that some “optimism might [have been] justified if the Plan provided substantially increased incentives for creation of new [energy] supplies” (p. 1159). However, Carter’s plan emphasized energy conservation … “providing no hope that America’s technological capabilities [to generate additional energy supply would] be effectively marshaled to help solve a deepening energy deficit” (p. 1159). Thus, a “missing element [was] inspiration,” and the failure of the plan to appeal to voters’ expectations to maintain standards of living was a key reason that the plan failed garner political support, an important lesson in the deliberation of energy policy alternatives (p. 1159).

Allen, Howard P. “Electric Utilities: Can They Meet Future Power Needs?” __Annals of the__ __American__ __Academy__ __of Political and Social Science__ 410 (November 1973): 86-96.

This article is written by a Senior Vice President for Southern California Edison, a large investor-owned utility serving Southern California. Allen argues for the need to develop a national energy policy in light of forecasted growth in energy demand, understanding that a multi-faceted approach, and approaches that balance environmental considerations with providing additional energy supply, will be needed. 1973, the year the article was written, was a watershed year for the United States in terms of energy moving to near the top of the national agenda, as the country faced its first major oil shock due to the Arab oil embargo. This article reflects the county’s attention toward considering alternative (to traditional polluting fossil fuels) and environmentally sensitive sources of energy. The focus on balancing expanding energy supply with environmental considerations reflects the new-found influence of the environmental movement (still in its infancy) in the United States (e.g., the creation of the first Earth Day three years earlier, and the recent establishment of the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)).

Angel, David P. “Green Gold: Japan, Germany, the United States, and the Race for Environmental Technology.” __Economic Geography__ 71, no. 3 (July 1995): 337-339

Angel reviews Moores’s and Miller’s book, __Green Gold: Japan, Germany, the United States and Race for Environmental Technology__. In the book, the authors argue that “A new policy approach [aimed at developing and implementing alternative energy technologies] is required in the United States” as the county is now “in danger of losing its competitive advantage to … Japan and Germany” (p. 338). The authors go onto to assert that “environmental regulation can benefit the economy by stimulating technological innovation and improving efficiency of firms and industries” (p. 338). The book also “examines the approach of Germany, Japan and the United States to the development of green technologies” (p. 338). This article, written in 1995, provides an overview of the Clinton administration’s efforts to promote alternative energy development through “various forms of public-private partnership, government seed funding, export promotion, government procurement,” and research and development (p. 338). The article will be helpful in highlighting the historical role of government in promoting alternative energy during the 1990s.

Asbury, Joseph G. and Ronald O. Mueller. “Solar Energy and Electric Utilities: Should They Be Interfaced?” __Science__ 195, no. 4277 (February 4, 1977): 445-450.

Asbury and Mueller conclude that “conventional electric utility systems and most solar energy systems represent a poor technological match. The basic problem is that both technologies are very capital intensive. The electric utility, because of the high fixed costs of generation, transmission, and distribution capacity represents a poor backup for solar energy systems. On the other hand, the solar collection system, because it represents pure, high-cost capital and because of its outage problems, cannot b e considered as a part-load source of auxiliary energy for the electric utility system” (p. 450). This article, when referenced with the Malott article, “Joint Operation of Municipal Utilities …” (below), highlights that the economic and operational viability of co-locating utility operations must be studied on a case-by-case basis.

Aspin, Les. “A Solution to the Energy Crisis: The Case for Increased Competition.” __Annals of__ __the American Academy of Political and Social Science__ 410 (November 1973): 154-168.

Aspin asserts that “Monopoly practices and concentration of power … [by] major oil companies have caused … [shortages] of fuel oil and gasoline supplies and the increase in prices of such fuels in the United States” (p. 154). The then-Congressman goes on to say that “These practices are found at four levels in the petroleum industry: production, refinement, transportation and marketing” (p. 154). Also, “the petroleum industry has undertaken horizontal expansion into other energy areas, such as coal and uranium; this suggests that the American consumer of energy will face … more problems, unless remedial action is taken” (p. 154). Aspen concludes by recommending that “Legislation designed to break apart the developing horizontal integration of petroleum companies and those in other energy areas should be seriously considered” (p. 154). This article highlights the effect the energy industry can have to exacerbate the problems of energy supply and price, caused in part by instability in oil producing regions of the world. Further, Aspin advocates that the federal government should play an activist role in regulating the energy industry.

Barkenbus, Jack N. “Federal Energy Policy Paradigms and State Energy Roles.” __Public__ __Administration Review__ 42, no. 5 (September-October 1982): 410-418.

Barkenbus presents “four … paradigms or models of government-market interaction with respect to energy. The article concludes that no one model for government involvement in energy policy has prevailed, changing from one presidential administration to another. This article, written in 1982, shortly after Regan took office, reflects the continued focus but lack of national consensus on energy policy as “The change from … Carter to … Regan … produced a striking shift in official perceptions of what constitutes legitimate government involvement in energy” (p. 416).

Bezdeck, Roger H. and William B. Taylor. “Allocating Petroleum Products during Oil Supply Disruptions.” __Science__ 212, no. 4501 (June 19, 1981): 1357-1363.

Bezdeck and Taylor acknowledge that “For the foreseeable future, the United States will be heavily dependent on imported oil. Political instability in several oil-exporting regions makes future disruptions possible” (p. 1357). Therefore, “In the event of a severe shortfall of long duration, government intervention … may be required, and allocation plans to moderate the effects of [a] shortfall [should] be evaluated (p. 1357). The authors analyze four “petroleum allocation options: (i) oil price and allocation controls, (ii) coupon gasoline rationing, (iii) a variable gasoline tax and rebate, and (iv) no oil price controls with partial rebates” (p. 1357). This article provides a good overview of oil rationing scenarios that could occur today as political unrest in the Middle East and America’s dependence on oil from that region continues.

Brannon, Gerard M. “U.S. Taxes on Energy Resources.” __The American Economic Review__ 65, no. 2 (May 1975): 397-404.

Brannon analyzes the impacts on the energy industry of several different tax measures, including: income taxes, property taxes, excise taxes, semi-taxes (import quotas, pro-rationing, environmental controls and natural gas price regulations). His analysis includes opinions from several researchers on each tax. Brannon then discusses what were at the time of the article, present tax issues. The researcher asserts that “With the current [high] oil prices, there is no need to protect a high-cost U.S. industry from the rigors of competition.” Brannon argues against the effectiveness of government-imposed price ceilings as they artificially keep demand high, and have the unintended affect of keeping world market prices high. The article concludes with an exploration of Project Independence’s energy policy recommendations, including “zero level of imports,” … [maintaining] reserves adequate to cover imports reduced by a feasible level of reduced consumption” (p. 402).

Bull, Thomas E. and John A. Turner. “Biomass in the Energy Picture.” __Science__ 285, no. 5431 (August 20, 1999): 1209-1210.

Bull asserts that biomass should be recognized for the large role it already plays in providing an alternative source of energy to oil, and for its potential to expand in use. Bull cites statistics provided by the federal government (the federal government’s data helps drive the policy deliberation) that “biomass accounts for 43% of the renewable energy used in the United States, second only to conventional hydroelectric power (51%). In contrast, solar accounts for 1% and wind for 5%” (p. 1209).

Burnett, W.M. and S.D. Ban. “Changing Prospects for Natural Gas in the United States.” __Science__ 244, no. 4902 (April 21, 1989): 305-310.

Burnett and Ban assert that “Natural gas has emerged as one of the primary options for satisfying the need for environmentally clean energy: the resource base is large, it is the cleanest burning of the fossil fuels, and it can be used effectively” (p. 305). Moreover, the researchers relay that the federal government has “established incentive prices for the pursuit of new natural gas resources” (p. 305).

Cigler, Beverly A. “Organizing for Local Energy Management: Early Lessons.” Public __Administration Review__ 41 no. 4 (July-August, 1981): 470-479.

This article highlights the potential role local governments can play in promoting energy conservation. Cigler reports that the article is “Set in the context of intergovernmental relations, [and] suggestions are made for providing the necessary policy guidance to local governments to enhance their potential role in conservation policy” (p. 470). This article can be useful in: 1) highlighting intergovernmental relations within a Federalist system (i.e., highlighting cooperation/coordination among different layers of government) to promote energy conservation policies and programs; 2) providing a historical view of energy conservation policy/program efforts (still in their infancy) in the late 1970s/early 1980s, a time of oil shocks, stagnant economic growth and inflation.

Clark, William C. and Nancy M. Dickson. “Sustainability Science: The Emerging Research Program.” __Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America__.” 100, no. 14 (July 8, 2003): 8059-8061.

This article catalogues efforts through the public, private and non-profit sectors, domestically and internationally, to form partnerships to develop new technologies to produce energy in an environmentally sensitive manner. While efforts differ in substance and structure world-wide, the authors point out that in 2003, there is a “shared view that the challenge of sustainable development is the reconciliation of society’s [energy needs] with the planet’s limits over the long term” (p. 8059). This article provides a good overview of efforts world-wide to form partnerships across the sectors to develop technologies for sustainable development, including alternative energy technologies.

Damon, Paul E. “Letters.” __Science__ 185, no. 4150 (August 9, 1974): 478 & 480.

This article includes several letters to the editor from readers responding to a special edition of __Science__ devoted to energy. W.E. Parkins notes that “One aspect [of energy related issues] not specifically analyzed is the effect of the rising costs of basic energy supplies on inflation” and the accompanying impact on the economy” (p. 478). Roe rails against the promises of new technology or development of alternative sources of energy as a panacea to solve energy shortages. Roe opines that additional energy will lead to additional demand. He asks “Can … a free society give no positive guidance to is own destiny?” (i.e., society should be looking at energy consumption in terms of life style and value choices about how society can live in a more ecologically sustainable way versus being caught up in the paradigm of increasing energy consumption of the moment). Other letters critique solar power (highlighting solar power’s limitations (based on early 1970s technology)), wind power’s limitations (due to its intermittent nature), and the need for conservation incentives for industrial energy consumption. This article provides a good snap-shot of scholarly attitudes toward a variety of energy technology and policy issues in the early 1970s. Many of the issues raised remain relevant in today’s energy technology and policy debate.

DeCarolis, Joseph F., David W. Keith, Mark Z. Jacobson and Gilbert M. Masters. “The Real Cost of Wind Energy.” __Science__ 294, no. 5544 (November 2, 2001): 1000-1001 & 1003

This article includes DeCarolis’s and Keith’s arguments against wind power and Jacobson’s and Masters’ rebuttal in favor of the energy source. DeCarolis and Keith argue that given the “1.5- ¢ /kWh federal credit for wind energy procedures” and the purported economic competitiveness of producing wind energy versus more traditional energy sources, such as coal, there should have been a large expansion of wind energy supply in the market place (p. 1000). No such expansion has occurred. The researchers opine that issues surrounding intermittency of power generation and the length/cost of transmission to major energy markets on both coasts are hindrances to the emergence of wind as a major energy source. In contrast, Jacobson and Masters argue that intermittency can be addressed by bringing more wind farms on-line so that different wind farms can offset each other to account for varying weather conditions. Also, there is a great “potential [for] wind power [generation] within 5 miles … of existing 230 kV or lower transmission lines. These wind farms would be developed first. Lastly, Jacobson and Masters assert that “Contrary to [DeCarolis’s and Keith’s] statement that “no wind boom has been observed, wind energy today has the fastest growth rate of any new source of electricity in the world.” (p. 1001). Moreover, Jacobson and Masters remind readers that while DeCarolis and Keith reference federal credits for wind producers, there have been and are “coal and natural gas subsidies, including exploration and mining tax credits, preferential loan interest rates for fossil-fuel power plants, long-term utility contract subsidies to coal, gas pipeline subsidies, and greater federal funding coal-and natural gas-technology programs, not to mention portions of the cost the U.S. Acid Deposition Program and U.S Environmental Protection Agency for cleanup and monitoring of pollution attributable to these industries” (pp. 1001 and 1003). This article illustrates the pros and cons of wind energy as a viable domestic, clean energy source.

Barbara C. Farhar. “Trends: Public Opinion About Energy.” //The Public Opinion Quarterly//, 58, no. 4 (Winter 1994): 603-632.

Farhar “examines trends in the public’s definition of the energy situation, attitudes toward energy institutions, preferred energy alternatives, and preferences on transportation issues” (p. 603). The survey period is 1979-1993. The researcher reports that the public regards the energy supply situation as a serious public policy issue. Further, “Because the public has exhibited consistent preferences for energy efficiency and renewable energy for the past 15 years … energy alternatives may become more important in public policy in the years ahead” (p. 615). Farhar relays that “the data [shows that] public trust and confidence in traditional energy institutions is not high. Business as usual is becoming outmoded in the energy arena for a variety of complex reasons, of which public opinion is one” (p. 615). This article highlights that public opinion continued to focus on energy independence and environmental issues as an important public policy issue despite the decrease in the cost of oil on the world market during the 1980s and early 1990s.

Fields, Scott. “COAL: Poised for a Comeback?” Environmental Health Perspectives 112, no. 15 (November 2004): A888-A891.

Fields explores the prospects for coal to reemerge as a desired energy source due to new technology to extract energy from coal that is more environmentally friendly and coal’s large supply. Fields reports that “Although plentiful and available, coal had until recently fallen out of favor with U.S. utilities for new electric generation. … The deregulation of natural gas, partially in 1978, and then completely with the Natural Gas Wellhead Decontrol Act of 1989, drove down the cost of natural gas” (p. A890). Moreover “[utilities] … were steered by the Clinton administration, which encouraged natural gas use and discouraged coal use. As a result, through the 1980s and early 1990s, there were few new coal power plants built as the nation’s thirst for electric power continued” (p. A890). Fields relays that “It was also much faster to build a gas-fired plant … the permitting process for a coal plant takes two to three years, compared to about one year for a gas plant” (p. A890). But Field quotes experts who agree that “‘Coal will be part of the energy future of the Unites States” due in part to the inability of renewable energy sources to fully meet growing energy demand in future years. This article highlights the tradeoffs in terms of supply, price, environmental impacts, government regulation, and dependence on foreign countries that are being deliberated as the United States attempts to address increased demand for energy. The article also highlights the influential role that the federal government can play in advancing or hindering one energy source versus another.

Fusso, Thomas E. “The Polls: The Energy Crisis in Perspective.” __The Public Opinion Quarterly__ 42, no. 1 (Spring 1978): 127-136.

Fusso provides results to surveys conducted of Americans regarding energy issues, comparing responses in 1974 and three years later in 1977. Survey results show: 1) that in the late 1970s, an overwhelming majority of Americans continued to believe that the energy supply situation in the country was serious; 2) a large majority of Americans supported reduced speed limits to conserve fuel; 3) Americans preferred gas taxes to rationing; 4) the public did not strongly support President Carter’s energy plan because, in part, it called for too many sacrifices. A study of survey results during the energy crisis of the 1970s provides a snapshot of consumer sentiments of that time, and can be compared with consumer sentiments concerning energy saving measures of today. However, a comparison of consumer preferences today versus the 1970s must account for new technologies/options for alternative sources of energy/fuel (e.g., hybrid/clean diesel, flex-fuel vehicles enabling use of ethanol) not available to consumers in the 1970s.

Goldman, Marshall I. “Red Black Gold.” __Foreign Policy__ 8 (Autumn 1972): 138-148.

Goldman states that “American commercial and foreign policy is ….being affected by some notable [developments] in East-West trade (p. 138). Goldman chronicles the former Soviet Union’s activity in the world-wide energy/oil market. The researcher outlines that “There are basically three types of approaches the Russians have used: direct exports, swap sales and foreign refining and marketing” (p. 142). Goldman’s overview provides insight into modern-day Russia’s potential and real impact on oil/energy/American foreign policy. The researcher highlights that Russian oil in the world market is adding to supply, and thus, keeping oil prices down for consumers (p.147). Also, Goldman states that Russian oil provides the United States and western allies with another source of oil, other than the Middle East, making the west less vulnerable to Arab oil embargos. In light of concerns over Middle Eastern oil (then and now), Goldman acknowledges the utility of having Soviet/Russian oil on the international market, and does not believe that American dependence on Russian oil (i.e. to satisfy a portion of American oil needs) poses a serious national security threat.

Gulick, Frances Anderson. “Energy-Related Legislation Highlights of the 93rd Congress and a Comparison of Three Energy Plans before the 94th Congress.” __Public Administration__ __Review__ 35, no. 4 (July-August 1975): 346-354.

Gulick catalogs the 93rd Congress’ energy policy actions and actions pending during this article, written in 1975. The 93rd Congress presided during the country’s first major energy crisis in 1973. Gulick reports that as a response to the crisis, this Congress “involved itself in energy-related legislation on an unprecedented scale” (346). This Congress enacted legislation concerning: 1) encouraging conservation of supply and use of energy; 2) managing and expanding energy supplies (e.g., Trans-Alaska pipeline); 3) developing commercial application of solar and geothermal energy technology; 4) implementing several organizational changes to reduce the fragmented pattern of energy policy formation and program implementation (p. 346). Also, Gulick highlights that several issues are pending for the following Congress when it convenes, including: 1) end use rationing and mandatory conservation; 2) revisions in oil and gas depletion allowances and other long-standing petroleum production incentives; 3) deregulation of natural gas; 4) petroleum pricing problems; 5) petroleum import policy. This article illustrates the activism of the Federal government in addressing energy options and energy delivery during the mid-1970s Also, the article shows how reactive the public sector can be in formulating and implementing policy after a policy or issue crisis versus pro-actively avoiding the crisis.

Hammond, Allen L. and William D. Metz. “Solar Energy Research: Making Solar After the Nuclear Model? __Science__ 197, no. 4300 (July 15, 1977): 241-244.

Hammond and Metz relay that the federal government’s focus on developing large, central solar collection facilities ignores the potential of this energy source to be produced in smaller, lower cost and more diffuse ways. One critic described the federal government solar energy program as “‘creating solar technologies in the image of nuclear power’” despite the fact that solar energy generation and the economics of it are very different from nuclear power (p. 241). The researchers go on to say that “One consequence of this R&D emphasis on large-scale, long-range systems is to distort economic and policy assessments of solar energy based on the current program, within the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) and in higher levels of the government” (p. 241). This article highlights how government policy, when not oriented in an optimal way, can stymie the emergence of new technology and limit policy choices.

Hatfield, Craig Bond. “Natural Gas Exploration.” __Science__ 219, no. 4580 (January 7, 1983): 10.

Hatfield, a public university professor, questions an article’s assertion published in __Science__ that methane and biomass fuel will play a major and expanding role in supplying energy to the United States. Hatfield contends that “The American Gas Association for decades has expressed confidence that much more natural gas will be discovered, but such confidence has not prevented a 25 percent decrease in our nation’s proved reserves of natural gas during the last 10 years, in spite of tremendous growth in rates of exploration for it” (p. 10). The article highlights the on-going debate over alternative fuel sources and the role that publicly-funded academicians and trade associations play in policy deliberations concerning energy.

Henderson, Lenneal J. “Energy Policy and Urban Fiscal Management.” Public Administration Review 41, (January 1981): 158-164.

Henderson reports that “the vast majority of America’s … public utility networks, industries and commercial establishments [in] urban areas will … be affected by and respond to urban energy policies” (p. 158). Thus, Henderson opines that energy issues at the local level are important to study in considering energy conservation and supply policy alternatives. In this analysis, Henderson argues that (1) as energy prices continue to rise, urban fiscal systems will experience more pressure to improve energy management; (2) that energy-induced fiscal strain will result in new patterns of intergovernmental fiscal relations; (3) that energy-related urban fiscal management must balance not only energy conservation decisions and tax and expenditures decisions but also energy conservation, development and social decisions; and (4) as a result, urban fiscal managers have an unprecedented opportunity to introduce innovative management techniques which interrelate energy conservation, production and socioeconomic dimensions” (p. 158). This article highlights the necessity to include local governments in federal and state energy policy deliberations, and to enact energy policies that are analyzed with regard to their local impact.

Hirsh, Richard F. “Controlling the Atom: The Beginnings of Nuclear Regulation, 1946-1962.” __The Business History Review__ 59, no. 3 (Autumn, 1985): 508-510.

This book review by Richard Hirsh highlights how the authors George Mazauzan and J. Samuel Walker provide a “descriptive and chronological account of the peaceful atom’s regulatory history” (p. 510). Hirsh says that the book “provides the legislative and institutional basis for understanding the successes of America’s peaceful atomic program” at the same time “[describing] the roots in legislation and politics that explain why the nuclear industry today is not what the dreamers and business leaders expected forty years ago [(mid-1940s)]” (p. 510). This book provide historical detail about creation of the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), its “contradictory mandates to promote and regulate peaceful nuclear power” and its eventual break-up into two agencies in the mid-to-late 1970s, the Department of Energy, charged with promoting nuclear power and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), for regulating nuclear power.

Hoffman, Kenneth C. and Dale W. Jorgenson. “Economic and Technological Models for Evaluation of Energy Policy.” __The Bell Journal of Economics__ 8, no. 2 (Autumn 1977): 444-466.

Hoffman and Jorgenson “[present] a new approach for policy assessment, integrating process analysis and econometric models that have been used extensively in energy policy analysis and technology assessment. [The researchers] illustrate the application of this approach by an analysis of a national research, development and demonstration plan for the United States” (p. 444). Hoffman and Jorgenson report that “integration of process analysis and econometric models, using an extended accounting framework for interindustry transactions, has proved to be feasible” (p. 465). Notwithstanding, the researchers did not undertake a “comprehensive evaluation of alternative energy policies” (p. 465). Hoffman and Jorgenson report that “A great deal of additional research will be required to develop the most appropriate framework for evaluation of alternative energy policies” (p. 465). Theoretical models such as Hoffman’s and Jorgenson’s are helpful in evaluating energy policy alternatives to assist policy makers.

Holton, W. Conrad. “Power Surge: Renewed Interest in Nuclear Energy.” __Environmental Health__ __Perspectives__ 113, no. 11 (November 2005): A742-A749.

Holton assesses the state of the nuclear industry fifty years after its inception. The researcher reminds readers that the “civilian nuclear power industry was created through U.S. government-electric utility industry cooperation that officially began with the Atomic Energy Act of 1954” (p. A745). Moreover, “The fostering of nuclear energy was woven into many U.S. foreign policy initiatives during the early days of the Cold War” (A745). Today, “rising concerns about the cost and security of energy supplies and global climate change have reframed the debate in terms more favorable for [the development/expansion of] nuclear power” (p. A743). The article provides a good historical overview of nuclear power, the federal government’s role in promoting it, and the current outlook for the expansion of nuclear energy.

Holzman, David C. “Driving up the Cost of Clean Air.” __Environmental Health Perspectives__ 113 no. 4 (April 2005): A246-A249.

Holzman describes costs associated with the burning of fossil fuels not captured in most cost analyses (such as externalities, e.g., defense costs to ensure a continuous supply of oil from the Persian Gulf, costs of climate change, or air pollution), or are not readily apparent (such as federal regulations, e.g., fuel economy of (CAFE) standards, EPA Tier 1 and 2 regulations (it is forecasted that Tier 2 regulations, when fully implemented, will add $100-$200 to the cost of new car), or the removal of sulfur from gasoline (projected to add approximately $.02 per gallon at the pump)). Other measures designed to improve air quality, but could add cost include: 1) a new proposed federal system … which would have financial implications for car manufacturers (whose vehicle emit greenhouse gas emissions), whereby “car manufacturers would receive fuel economy credits for exceeding the target fleet average, and instead of meeting the target, they could buy credits from other manufacturers or the government. The prospect of selling extra credits might motivate manufacturers to boost fuel economy beyond the target [(cap-and-trade system)]” (p. A249); 2) a gasoline tax, which could function like a carbon tax and could “[address] the fuel-related externality of carbon dioxide emissions and the resulting climate change (p. A249); 3) “So-called feebates … would provide a rebate to buyers of cars and trucks that exceed a fuel economy benchmark, and charge a fee to buyers of cars that miss the benchmark” (p. A249); 4) scrap-and-replace program “for low-income households, which would get what are traditionally the least efficient cars off the road, and provide poorer families with reliable, affordable personal transportation” (p. A249). This article provides an overview of current and potential policy options to provide incentives for car manufacturers to produce and consumers to purchase vehicles that emit few greenhouse gas emissions.

Kahn, Matthew E. “New Evidence on Trends in Vehicle Emissions.” __The RAND Journal of__ __Economics__ 27, no. 1 (Spring 1996): 183-196.

Kahn reports that “Aggregate vehicle emissions have fallen even though total miles driven have increased” (p. 183). In this analysis, Kahn “uses two new cross-sectional databases to study vehicle emissions profiles. [He found] evidence of large differences in vehicle emissions across model years, makes and sizes. These findings are relevant for evaluating the benefits of previous regulatory efforts and for predicting the benefits of further vehicle regulation” (p. 183). A key insight Kahn makes is that “emissions [fell] when new-car emissions [regulations] became more stringent” (p. 194). Kahn’s analysis highlights the impact of federal regulations on the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, and implies that federal regulations should be a part of future energy policy choices.

Kazimi, Camilla. “Valuing Alternative-Fuel Vehicles in Southern California. __The American__ __Economic Review__ 87, no. 2 (May 1997): 265-271.

At the time this article was written, the California Air Resources Board had mandated that ten percent of all new vehicles sold in California be zero-emitting electric vehicles in 2003. The Air Resources Board has since backed away from the zero-emitting vehicle requirement. Kazimi uses a microsimulation model developed by researchers at the Institute of Transportation Studies (ITS) at the University of California to study greenhouse gas emissions reduction “under three market conditions: (i) households can only purchase gasoline cars; (ii) households can purchase gasoline, compressed natural gas (CNG), or methanol vehicles; and (iii) households can purchase gasoline, CNG, methanol, or electric vehicles” (p. 265). Kazimi reports his findings for each scenario, and concludes/summarizes that emissions savings/benefits found under each scenario “on a per capital basis [will only] increase from $1.67 per person to $11.30 per person” which are not significant gains/benefits in relation to the costs (p. 265). Also, Kazimi questions whether the “benefits outweigh the costs associated with the current mandates” (p. 265).

Klausner, Samuel Z. “The Energy Social System.” __Annals of the American Academy of Political__ __and Social Science__, 444 (July 1979): 1-22.

Klausner asserts that “Growing governmental involvement in energy activities has contributed to politicizing relations among energy suppliers and energy consumers within nations”(p. 1). The researcher also says that public policy deliberations about energy have redrawn the political map with regard to alliances among national states and groups within states (p. 1). Further, there is increased attention on “political action governing resources allocation” (p. 1). This article highlights the impact of energy policy on society, internationally and within countries (among interest groups).

Kunce, Mitch, Shelby Gerking and William Morgan. “Effects of Environmental and Land Use Regulation in the Oil and Gas Industry Using the Wyoming Checkerboard as an Experimental Design.” __The American Economic Review__ 92, no. 5 (December 2002): 1588-1593.

Kunce, Gerking and Morgan “[estimate] the extra costs for drilling for oil and gas on federal land as compared to private land in Wyoming” near Union Pacific Railroad right-of-way (p. 1588). The researchers’ data “suggest that average drilling costs per well are about $200,000 higher on federal property than on private property. This difference is attributable to more stringent enforcement of environmental and land use regulations on federal land” (p. 1588). The researchers state that their cost estimates “have several implications for both public policy and future research. One policy issue is whether drilling regulations should be more stringently enforced on federal land than on other types of land” (p. 1593). Kunce, Gerking and Morgan state that the “A second issue relates to possible reductions in output of oil and gas due to more stringent enforcement of regulations on federal property. Reduced output from currently reserves may add incentives to explore in the most environmentally sensitive areas (i.e., national parks and the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge) sooner than otherwise” (p. 1593). In addition, the researchers state that “A third issue is concerned with effects on production tax revenue in states that apply these types of taxes. Federal policies that restrict output [could] force such states to cut back on public service expenditures or fund public services from other revenue sources. Thus, it is easy to see why public officials in states such as Wyoming, New Mexico and Alaska with large amounts of federal property rely that rely heavily on mineral production tax revenue to finance public services [would] be vocal opponents of more stringent environmental and land use regulation” (p. 1593). This article provides a good analysis of the impact of environmental and land use regulations on energy politics and intergovernmental relations.

Lambright, W. Henry & Albert H. Teich. “Policy Innovation in Federal R&D: The Case for Energy.” __Public Administration Review__ 39, no. 2 (March-April, 1979): 140-147.

The article explores the change in national research and development policy making in energy as a way to highlight the general process “by which these R&D priorities are formed, wax, and wane. Who is behind these changes? Who promotes, who opposes? How well do R&D priorities reflect the nation’s needs and capabilities?” (p. 140). Using energy policy, this article provides a review of factors that account for policy change and innovation by the Federal government. This is a “period piece” highlighting the focus/attention on energy conservation policies and programs during the Carter administration.

Levi, Daniel J. and Elaine E. Holder. “Psychological Factors in the Nuclear Power Controversy.” __Political Psychology__ no. 3 (September 1988): 445-457.

Levi and Holder surveyed students at California Polytechnic State University, located near the Diablo Canyon Nuclear Power Plant to assess psychological factors concerning nuclear energy. The researchers finding were as follows: “Nuclear power proponents and opponents were equally knowledgeable about nuclear power factual information, but … [supporters] expressed more trust in the credibility of information received from government and industry officials and were more trusting that the officials would protect the public” (p. 445). The survey provides a good snapshot concerning voter attitudes toward nuclear energy during the late 1980s. Survey results may be useful today as renewed interest in nuclear energy is increasing.

Light, Alfred R. “Federalism and the Energy Crisis: A View from the States.” __Publius__, 6, no. 1 (Winter, 1976): 81-96.

This analysis examines the “evolution of the state role in the 1973-74 energy crisis and the new responsibilities the states assumed during that period and which they continue to exercise” (p. 82). Light goes on to say that “The basic theme is that the states, while performing admirably under the emergency conditions of 1973-74, [had] not yet [(as of the late 1970s)] adequately developed their potential to contribute to energy policy-making, program implementation, and administration” (p. 82). Also, “What is true for the federal government is true for the states as well. Unless policy-makers reexamine the makeshift mechanisms which they quickly created during the crisis to handle immediate problems, their ‘crisis’ decisions, which in many cases [were] something other what careful policy analysis would prescribe, may hamper the states’ development of a helpful role in a national energy system” (pp. 82-83). This article highlights the reactive approach government has taken with regard to energy policy, noting that soon after the initial energy crisis of the late 1970s passed, the attention shifted away from energy and to the stagnating economy of the late 1970s, again, another reaction to events unfolding.

Light, Alfred R. “The Governors’ Push for Emergency Energy Powers.” __Publius__ 10, no. 1 (Winter 1980): 57-67

Light reports that “In early 1979, the governors moved to fill a policy vacuum created by stalemate and recriminations over national energy policy. The states’ willingness to seize the initiative on energy emergency matters stemmed from … three factors: 1) national interest in energy conservation as the chief short-term solution to energy-related woes; 2) a recent history of intergovernmental interaction and legislation, laying the foundation for state involvement in energy conservation and energy emergency programs; and 3) the easy incorporation of those programs within the governors’ overall strategy for enhancing their influence in the American federal system” (p. 59). This article highlights intergovernmental relations between the federal and state governments, and the impact that decisions made at the state level had on federal policy and the overall public sector response to the oil shortage of 1979.

Lincoln, G.A. “Energy Conservation.” __Science__ 180, no. 4082 (April 13,1973): 155-162.

Lincoln asserts that “the energy [supply] problem must … be attacked [in part] from the standpoint of energy conservation. The forthcoming rise in prices will …make more attractive some forms of conservation which at [the time the article was written were] economically marginal” (p. 161). Moreover, “Existing capabilities and technology, on which short- and midterm improvements must be based, appear to offer substantial possibilities for reducing U.S, energy consumption within the next decade” (p. 161). Notwithstanding, Lincoln argues that “technological advances alone will not [promote conservation]. The problem [of using too much energy] spans on only the traditional physical and engineering sciences but also the sciences which deal with human attitudes and actions, that is, the social sciences, and includes a more fundamental understanding of underlying economic principles” (p. 161). This article illustrates the increased focus on energy supply and energy usage leading up to the Arab oil embargo.

Malott, E. Orth. “Joint Operation of Municipal Utilities in Wisconsin.” __The Journal of Land &__ __Public Utility Economics__ 6, no. 2 (May 1930): 196-203.

Malott catalogues the number of local government-owned power generation plants (e.g., steam, gas/oil/hydro) that are co-located with other city utilities (e.g., water). Malott explains that the co-location of utility functions creates economies of financial and operating scale. This article, written nearly eighty years ago, highlights local governments’ involvement in power generation (still seen today in select cities (e.g., Roseville, CA) and in large, municipal electric utilities (e.g., Los Angeles’ Department of Water and Power (DWP) and the Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD)). Consequently, public officials at the local level can and will participate in policy deliberations concerning energy, and local government interests must be considered when formulating energy policy options.

Margolis, Robert M. and Daniel M. Kammen. “Underinvestment: The Energy Technology and R&D Policy Challenge.” Science 285, no. 5428 (July 30, 1999): 690-692.

Margolis and Kammen “examine data on international trends in energy research and development (R&D) funding, patterns of U.S. energy technology patents and R&D funding, and U.S. R&D intensities across selected sectors. The data present a disturbing picture: (i) Energy technology funding levels have declined significantly during the past two decades throughout the industrial world; (ii) U.S. R&D spending and patents, both overall and in the energy sector, have been highly correlated during the past two decades; and (iii) the R&D intensity of the U.S. energy sector is extremely low” (p. 690). The researchers argue “that recent cutbacks in energy R&D are likely to reduce the capacity of the energy sector to innovate” (p. 690). Margolis and Kammen conclude by stating that “The trends are particularly troubling given the need for increased international capacity to respond to emerging risks such as global climate change” (p. 690). This article highlights energy sector R&D spending in the United States, and suggests the lack of focus on energy sector R&D will result in many more problems for the United States beyond inadequate energy supply. Articles such as this one are important to add to energy policy deliberations in this country with regard to identifying priorities and spending.

Metz, William D. “Oil Shale: A Huge Resource of Low-Grade Fuel.” __Science__ 184, no. 4143 (June 21, 1974): 1271-1272 and 1274-275.

Metz reports that due to significant increases in the cost of oil, the economics of oil shale production have improved. However, environmental and technological limitations will curb oil shale’s production for the foreseeable future. Metz asserts that “The actual amount of shale oil extracted will also depend heavily on government policies. The Department of the Interior, which control 80 percent of the rich shale lands, is currently leasing six small … tracts for development” (p. 1271). Metz goes on to say that production will be limited “even with an expanded leasing program, unless the government provides substantial economic incentives, such as guaranteed loans, rapid amortization of plants, import restrictions, or a price floor” (p. 1271). The article highlights the importance of public sector involvement in the energy sector to enable alternative energy sources to become economically viable.

Morton, Rogers C.B. “The Nixon Administration Energy Policy.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 410 (November 1973): 65-74.

This article was written by President Nixon’s Secretary of the Interior, Rogers C.B. Morton. Morton frames the discussion of energy policy by stating that “the nation was, and continues to be, in a period transition from a long era of cheap and abundant indigenous energy and neglect of environmental consequences to one of scarcity of acceptable clean fuels, growing dependence on foreign energy imports, inadequate development of alternative clean energy sources and a growing interest in maintaining or enhancing environmental values” (p. 65). Morton highlights several tenets of the Nixon administration’s energy policy, including: policies/programs to “stimulate increased utilization of all energy sources found within the United States, including … the outer continental shelf, and [removal] of artificial price and bureaucratic barriers which restrict the flow of gas and oil to markets” (p. 65). Morton relays that there are growing suggestions to reorganize the executive branch to “enhance the government’s ability to perceive and respond to energy problems and opportunities” (p. 65). These discussions ultimately led to the creation of the Department of Energy in 1977. This article provides a good historical view of the federal government’s energy policy and deliberations in the early 1970s, a time of transition from abundant energy to energy scarcity and environmental considerations.

Mossop, Grant D. “Geology of the Athabasca Oil Sands.” __Science__ 207, no. 4427 (January 11, 1980): 145-152.

This article has a more technical than public policy focus about the oil sands of Alberta. Alberta’s oil sands were recently featured on “60 Minutes,” and though the mining method is complex and expensive, due to the increasing cost of oil, the economics of extracting oil from Alberta’s oil sands are becoming more favorable. Alberta maintains a lobbying presence in Washington, DC to encourage a favorable legal and regulatory environment for the importation of oil from Alberta’s oil sands. Mossop reports that oil “resources in the Alberta oil sands are estimated at 1350 billion barrels” (p. 145). The researcher goes on to say that “By comparison, the Prudhoe Bay field, which is one of the ten largest conventional oil pools in the world, contains approximately 15 billion barrels. The total … reserves [in] Alberta … are now estimated at … almost twice the recoverable conventional reserves in the entire world” (p. 145).

Murray, James R., Michael J. Minor, Norman M. Bradburn, Robert F. Cotterman, Martin Frankel Alan E. Pisarski. “Evolution of Public Response to the Energy Crisis.” __Science__ 184, no. 4134 (April 19, 1974): 257-263.

This article provides an overview of survey results concerning public sentiment about the energy crisis of 1973-74. The survey data was collected “to provide federal agencies with data relevant to program and policy issues” related to energy supply and use (p. 257). The researchers report that “The general picture that emerges from the survey data is that while a majority of the public consider the energy shortage an important problem, only about 25 percent [felt] that it is the most important problem facing the county [at that time]” (p. 257). Moreover, “Agreement [was] widespread that responsibility for the energy crisis [lay] most heavily on the federal government and oil companies” (p. 257). Also, “there [was] … a prevailing sentiment that the federal government [was] not handling the situation well” (pp. 257-258).

“Ongoing U.S. Efforts to Curb Iran’s Nuclear Program.” __The American Journal of International__ __Law__ 100, no. 2 (April 2006): 480-485.

This journal article chronicles the Unites States and European allies UK, France and Germany to implement a “carrots and sticks” diplomacy with Iran to convince the middle eastern nation to abandon its pursuit of a nuclear program capable of producing nuclear weapons. In this diplomacy, the European nations are assuming a “good cop” role in attempting to negotiate a series of incentives for Iran to abandon its program. The United States has assumed the “bad cop” role of suggesting more robust action (including not ruling out military action) against the regime in Tehran should Iran fail to abandon its nuclear program. The situation with Iran illustrates the dangers of nuclear proliferation, security issues, and international relations surrounding nuclear energy.

Orr, David W. “U.S. Energy Policy and the Political Economy of Participation.” __The Journal of__ __Politics__ 41, no. 4 (November 1979): 1027-1056.

In this essay, Orr asserts that “energy policy most directly involves politics and ethics” (p. 1027). Orr “[discusses:] what is meant by the energy transition, … three broad perspectives on energy policy, …. [and] an argument for extending participation in both policy-making and policy implementation” (p. 1027). The researcher “[argues] that greater public involvement in the energy sector [will] broaden the public interest, promote equity in the distribution of payoffs, increase public accountability, and improve social resilience” to technological innovation in energy production and distribution (pp. 1027-1028). Orr concludes by saying that “issues of energy policy and the technological choices entailed present more of a challenge to our political creativity than to our technical genius” (p. 1028). This essay highlights the challenges the public sector has faced historically (and continues to face) in developing a national consensus on the promotion of various environmentally sensitive energy generating sources.

Ovshinsky, SR, MA Fetcenko and J. Ross. “A Nickel Metal Hydride Battery for Electric Vehicles." Science 260, no. 5105 (April 9, 1993): 176-181.

This article describes the new battery technology, Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH), from the early 1990s. The battery would become an important component for electric vehicles. The researchers point out that in the early 1990s, “U.S. federal and state governments [had] been providing an impetus for the development of an EV industry through legislation aimed at increasing national energy independence and reducing the impact of automobile emissions on the environment” (p. 176). As one example, “A comprehensive energy bill passed by Congress [contained] a tax credit for EV buyers. [The] bill also requires state and federal governments to purchase alternative-fuel fleet vehicles with the percentage of new, cleaner fuel vehicles growing to 90% by … 2000” (p. 176). This article highlights the role the government can play in encouraging new technologies and new markets.

Pool, Robert. “Solar Cells Turn 30.” __Science__ 241, no. 4868 (August 19, 1988): 900-901.

Pool discusses the significance of the solar power industry having developed a photovoltaic cell that converts up to 30% of the light energy that hits it into electricity. Pool highlights that “the cost of solar power depends on two factors. The first is the efficiency of the solar cell … The second factor is the cost to produce the cells and to put them into operation” (p. 900). Given the two factors, Pool asks “So what does hitting the “Three-Oh” mean to solar power effort? In practical terms, very little” as the cost of producing solar energy [was at the time of this article] much more expensive other energy sources (p. 901). This article highlights the economics of producing electricity from one source versus another, and that solar energy generation still had a long way to go before it would be viable as a primary source of energy generation.

Regens, James L. “Energy Conservation and the States: Approaches to Implementing National Policy.” __Publius__ 10, no. 1 (Winter 1980): 47-56.

Regens asserts that the “initial policy response [to the energy crisis of the 1970s] by the federal government and the states focused attention on the most visible aspects of what [was] really a ‘petroleum crisis’ in the short term (p. 47). However, “as easily demonstrable aspects of the supply-demand imbalance began to fade, years of apathy and neglect suddenly were replaced by scapegoat politics” (pp. 47-48). There was “conflict and uncertainty over intergovernmental relationships in such … areas as resource development, facility siting, nuclear waste management, and fuel allocation priorities” (p. 48). Consequently, the researcher opines that “since the [1973 oil] embargo, heated debate rather than consensus on the challenges and responses of energy policy has been the dominant national response” (p. 48). Moreover, Regens says that “as Americans [entered] into the 1980s, the social and political climate [did] not yet appear to be conducive to the implementation of comprehensive energy policies” (p. 48). This article highlights that the system of checks and balances and separation of powers in a federalist system in the United States has created structural/organizational challenges to developing a comprehensive energy policy. The result has been short-term and incremental policy responses to the energy problems (supply and environmental), and tension and confusion over roles between the federal government and the states.

Robinson, Arthur L. “Energy Storage (II): Development Advanced Technologies.” __Science__ 184, no. 4139 (May 24, 1974): 884-887.

Robinson asserts that development of energy storage technologies is important for utilities to better manage energy supplies and to support new technologies such as electric vehicles. A number of researches working at public universities, such as the University of Wisconsin at Madison, and at national laboratories, such as Los Alamos, are working to improve energy storage technology. However, Robinson reports that “Despite the importance of energy storage, the activity as indicated by funding can only be described as modest. The largest advanced storage research program in the federal government belongs to the Atomic Energy Commission” with its largest expenditures in the energy storage area “going toward batteries” (p. 887). This article highlights the efforts in the public sector to develop a new energy supply technology.

Rosa, Eugene A., Gary E. Machlis and Kenneth M. Keating. “Energy and Society.” __Annual__ __Review of Sociology__ 14 (1988): 149-172.

The researchers report that this “review traces key themes and arguments in the sociology of energy and critically evaluates the literature” (p. 149). The analysis is organized into four sections: “energetic theories of society, macrosociology of energy, microsociology of energy, … energy policy, and other special topics. A concluding section assesses the state of the field and speculates on its future directions” (p. 149). This article provides an overview of the historical trends in the relationship of energy and society at the societal and personal/household levels. Written in 1988, the authors opine that while no energy crisis existed at that time, “it would be comforting to believe that [energy demand] is being adequately addressed, so that few sociologically relevant energy problems remain and chances of future crises are slim. Unfortunately, … [an] energy crisis is over until we have our next energy crisis” (p. 168). Placing energy within a sociological framework highlights the impact that societal conditions have on energy policy versus technological break-throughs and/or limitations.

Rosa, Eugene A. and Riley E. Dunlap. “Poll Trends: Nuclear Power: Three Decades of Public Opinion.” __The Public Opinion Quarterly__ 58, no. 2 (Summer 1994): 295-324.

Rosa and Dunlap chronicle public support for nuclear power. The researchers report that throughout most of the 1970s, “Americans were enthusiastic about the growth of nuclear power; a second stage of ambivalence following [the Three Mile Island incident in March 1979]; and a third stage—emerging in the early 1980s—when a decisive majority of Americans opposed building more nuclear power plants” (p. 297). Polling data also indicated a correlation in the early 1980s with the public’s concerns over the expansion of the country’s nuclear bomb arsenal and concerns over any expansion in nuclear power. A paradox that the researchers found was that “on the one hand, solid majorities of the public [opposed] … more nuclear plants … on the other [hand], equally solid majorities believe that nuclear power should be and will be an important energy source in the future” (p. 305). Survey data also highlighted the public’s concerns about the “siting of a permanent repository to store large and growing volumes of nuclear wastes” (p. 305). The polling data from the early 1990s may also reflect the low price of oil and lack of urgency at that time concerning greenhouse gas emissions and their impact on climate change.

Rosapepe, James Carew and Joseph S. Nye, Jr. “Letters.” __Foreign Policy__ 41 (Winter 1980-1981): 188-190.

This article includes a letter to the editor from James Carew Rosapepe, a public member of the Emergency Preparedness Committee at the National Petroleum Council, critiquing Nye’s article in __Foreign Policy__, entitled “Energy Nightmares,” and Nye’s rebuttal of Rosapepe’s critique. Rosapepe disagrees with Nye’s assertion that an increased gas tax will address short-term supply problems should the country experience another acute gas shortage. Instead, Rosapepe argues that developing a workable gas rationing plan is a better approach. In response, Nye asserts that there are different ways that a gas tax can be applied to address some of the specific concerns Rosapepe raises. Nye concedes that the researcher “agrees with Rosapepe that we should try to improve the efficiency and equity of rationing plans because we may be forced to use them” (p. 190). This article provides a window into the debate over short-term solutions to the energy crisis in the 1970s, solutions, which could be relevant today should the United States face another acute gas shortage.

Schipper, Lee. “Another Look at Energy Conservation.” __The American Economic Review__ 69, no. 2 (May 1979): 362-368.

Schipper explores energy conservation measures and their potential to play a role in addressing the energy supply problem. Schipper points out that new technologies will aid businesses and residences to use less power with new, more energy efficient manufacturing machines and processes and more energy efficient home appliances. Building construction methods and HVAC systems are more efficient than in the past. Schipper also advocates for higher gas mileage standards and higher gas taxes (or taxes assessed based upon a car’s fuel economy or weight) to encourage energy/fuel conservation (p. 366). Schipper concludes by stating that “massive government intervention in all areas of energy supply will be necessary if energy supplies are to double [in the twenty-first century]” (p. 367). The article highlights the importance of energy conservation, and the role that new technology will play to promote energy conservation.

Solow, John L. “General Equilibrium Incidence of Energy Taxation.” __Southern Economic__ __Journal__ 51, no. 4 (April 1985): 1018-1030.

Solow contends that “The pervasiveness of energy in the economy and numerous ways in which energy taxation can distort resource allocations implies the necessity of a general equilibrium approach to the question of energy tax incidence” (p. 1019). The researcher develops a model to study the impact of “three broadly-based energy taxation policies; a tax on all energy consumption, a subsidy to domestic energy production, and a tariff on energy imports” (p. 1019). Solow concludes by stating that his analysis “confirms the necessity of addressing tax incidence issues in the context of a general equilibrium framework. This is … important in the case of energy taxation, given the many avenues for these taxes to distort economic decisions. [Moreover, Solow contends that his] model enables us to measure the backward shifting that … is crucial to the determination of progressivity, and to identify the aspects of the economy to which the results are sensitive” (p. 1030). Analytical models, such as Solow’s, are important to assess the economic impacts of energy conservation policy alternatives.

Spero, Joan Edelman. “Energy Self-Sufficiency and National Security.” Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science 31, no. 2 (December 1973): 123-136.

Spero provides an assessment of the United States’ security tied to its energy policy and energy supply. The researcher states that a “real national-security problem would occur in the event of a general, nonnuclear war of long duration” as energy self-sufficiency would be compromised (p. 124). Spero points out that “Self-sufficiency [is] crucial in a long, general nonnuclear war” (e.g., access to domestic oil supplies was a key reason that the United States prevailed in World War II). Notwithstanding, the researcher asserts that a “more probable security [threat is] nonmilitary” (p. 124). Spero says that “a vital threat to the functioning of the economic system as a whole would be a threat to national security. A major interruption of the energy supply that crippled the economy would pose such a threat” (pp. 124-125). Also, the researcher points out that “Energy dependence [has] political consequences. Military and economic vulnerability decreases the United States’ international bargaining position and makes it vulnerable to political pressure and political blackmail. Threatened or actual supply interruptions, for example, are effective bargaining tools on the side of producer states and their allies. Such political pressure threatening vital American interests would be a national security problem” (p. 125).

Furthermore, Spero provide several recommendations to address energy dependency and energy supply concerns, including: 1) adopt energy conservation measures nation-wide (p. 133); 2) adopt policies that encourage domestic energy consumption (p. 133); 3) diversify foreign sources (other than politically volatile areas such as the Middle East) (p. 134); 4) stockpile oil domestically (p. 134); 5) seek to improve relations with the Middle East and North Africa (p. 134); 6) seek cooperation on energy policy with Western Europe and Japan (p. 134); 7) maintain naval presence in Middle East to deter threats and affirm strategic importance of transportation routes for national security (p. 135). This assessment of national security and energy policy highlights many issues that are relevant to consider when evaluating energy policy alternatives today.

Strum, Harvey. “Eisenhower’s Solar Energy Policy.” __The Public Historian__ 6, no. 2 (Spring 1984): 37-50.

This article chronicles the Federal government’s energy policy during the Eisenhower administration. The research reports that in 1952, the “Paley Commission [(appointed by President Truman)] suggested that the United States begin the development of solar energy and other alternative sources of energy to retard a growing American dependence on Middle Eastern oil, but rejecting these recommendations, the Eisenhower administration refused to increase federal support for solar energy and terminated federal support for synthetic fuels” (p. 37). The Eisenhower administration did support “[providing] technical information, fissionable materials, and prototype designs of nuclear reactors to private industry” to promote the expansion of nuclear energy (p. 39). This is a good historical article, tracing back modern policy deliberations on energy policy to Federal policy and action after World War II. Many of the issues identified in the Paley Commission’s report are still relevant today, and help place today’s energy policy deliberations within a historical context.

Sylves, Richard T. “Carter Nuclear Licensing Reform versus Three Mile Island.” __Publius__ 10, no1 The State of American Federalism (Winter 1980): 69-79.

Sylves relays the failed attempt of the Carter administration to streamline the nuclear power plant permitting process. Specifically, the goal was to better integrate plant permitting policies and procedures with the states’ policies and procedures to reduce the permitting time for new nuclear power plants. The researcher suggests that the Carter administration failure to streamline the permitting system “[perpetuated] a ‘separated authority’ model of intergovernmental relations … [and that] State nuclear regulatory activities [would] continue to parallel, overlap, or in some instances contradict federal nuclear regulatory actions” (p. 79). Moreover, the “Carter licensing reform proposals would have created a system that could be characterized as ‘overlapping, interdependent, bargaining. Overlap in this system would [have been] based upon shared coordinated responsibilities, rather than unnecessary duplication” (p. 79). This article highlights efforts after the Three Mile Island incident to keep nuclear energy a viable option for power generation, and the inability of the Carter administration to implement key energy policy goals.

Walker, J Samuel. “Reactor at the Fault: The Bodega Bay Nuclear Plant Controversy, 1958- 1964: A Case Study in the Politics of Technology” __The Pacific Historical Review__ 59, 3 (August 1990): 323-348.

This article chronicles efforts by local residents and environmentalists to block Pacific Gas and Electric’s attempt to develop a nuclear power plant along Bodega Bay, adjacent to the Pacific Ocean. The debate over siting the proposed facility brought to the forefront issues such as land use aesthetics and seismic hazards as factors for consideration for permitting, issues that had not previously been considered. After intense public opposition and facing an uncertain outcome in the permitting process, PG&E decided to not pursue the project. The successful opposition foreshadows later efforts by environmentalists and local interests to block nuclear power plant construction.

Weinhold, Bob. “Fuel for the Long Haul? Diesel in America.” __Environmental Health__ __Perspectives__ 110, no. 8. (August 2002): A458-A464.

Weinhold provides an overview of diesel engines, their use in transportation historically, and diesel’s potential to play a role in providing energy in the future. Given problems of pollution with existing diesel technology, new federal regulations are triggering increased public and private research and development to developer cleaner diesel technology. Alternative fuels (e.g., bio-fuel) and paring diesel engines with electric motors (hybrid electric/diesel engines) are being explored along with other technological advances. Given the number existing diesel engines in operation and the potential for cleaner diesel engines to be introduced, Weinhold indicates that “‘There’s very clearly a … future for diesel’” (p. A464). This article provides a good overview of diesel technology, and the challenges and opportunities associated with the technology’s use.

West, Edwin G. and Michael McKee. “The Public Choice of Price Control and Rationing of Oil.” __Southern Economic Journal__ 48, no. 1 (July 1981): 204-210.

In this economic analysis, West and McKee study Buchanan’s and Tideman’s model of public choice during resource supply shortages, such as oil. Buchanan and Tideman contend that “the laissez-faire of free market alternative appears to lack support in political democracy where markets are isolated and attacked one at a time and singly” (p. 204). Buchanan and Tideman also conclude that a market would constrain its demand if a “windfall profits tax” were imposed (p. 204). As a result of studying Buchanan and Tideman’s model, West and McKee assert that “support for control schemes is related to historical paths of prices. Prices will be permitted to rise to a ‘natural’ level as the voters become psychologically receptive to it. [As an example of this dynamic,] … the post 1974 history of ‘controls’ might be seen as a record of ‘gradual’ increases in price, within the level of political tolerance” (p. 209). This article makes use of an economic model to explain the political tolerance of voters for price controls and other measures to curb demand during an acute shortage of a natural resources, such as oil.

Willrich, Mason. “Energy Independence for America.” __International Affairs__ 52, no. 1 (January 1976): 53-66.

Willrich speculates that “government’s persistent inability to make political choices among alternative means [of energy sources] may … reflect doubt and ambivalence about energy independence as a national goal” (p. 53). In this analysis, Willrich “[analyzes] the basic issues underlying energy independence from an American viewpoint” (p. 53). This analysis is interesting as discussion about Brazil’s move toward energy independence through sugar cane-based ethanol fuel has gained widespread attention. The author concludes that if America cannot develop a workable solution to its energy dependence/supply problem, long-term, the country risks declining as a military and political superpower in the world.

Winsche, W.E., K.C. Hoffman and F.J. Salzano. “Hydrogen: Its Future Role in the Nation’s Energy Economy.” __Science__ 180, no. 4093 (June 29, 1973): 1325-1332.

Winsche, Hoffman and Salzano “present the results of a preliminary evaluation of the economics and environmental benefits of hydrogen energy delivery systems in the residential and transportation sectors. [Also, the researchers] examine the future cost of energy delivered to residential consumers by several different delivery systems, and … assume that the technology required, which is theoretically feasible, can be development and implemented” (p. 1326). The researchers conclude with an optimistic view of hydrogen’s potential as an alternative energy source. However, acknowledge that “considerable amount of research is required before any hydrogen energy delivery system can be implemented” (p. 1331). This article highlights present-day discussion/consideration of hydrogen as a viable energy source, and places hydrogen into a historical context as it was explored by public policy and technical analysts during the energy supply crisis of the early 1970s.

Zemansky, S. D. “An Energy Conservation Program.” __Public Productivity Review__ 5, no. 3 (September 1981): 247-250.

This article chronicles the City of Baltimore’s efforts to promote energy conservation. The City’s program included a variety of measures, ranging from implementing a “two million dollar loan program for home weatherization to a program that awards certificates to conservation-minded businesses” (p. 247). The efforts have resulted in a “fifteen percent decrease … in natural gas consumption” over a two year period (p. 248). This article illustrates the impact that local governments can have in energy conservation when a focused city-wide program is implemented.